of total primary energy.
784
BP Energy Economics, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019, 68th Edition (London: BP, June 2019), accessed January 16, 2020, https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf. Solar energy figure from BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019. Geothermal electricity production in 2018 is estimated by the International Energy Agency to be 90 terawatt-hours, which, using BP’s method for conversion to primary energy equivalent, would be 20.3 MTOE, or 0.1 percent of 2018 global primary energy.
785
“Tesla Mega-battery in Australia Activated,” BBC News, December 1, 2017, https://www.bbc.com.
786
Julian Spector, “California’s Big Battery Experiment: A Turning Point for Energy Storage?” The Guardian, September 15, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com. In 2018, according to the U.S. Energy Information Agency, 134 million residential electricity accounts used about 11,000 KWh per year, or 1.25 KW on average throughout the year.
787
The U.S. Department of Energy finds that four-hour-capacity lithium battery facilities cost $1,876 per kilowatt of power in 2018, with prices expected to fall 23 percent to $1,446 per kilowatt by 2025. Escondido Energy Storage is a 30 megawatt, four-hour facility. The U.S. Energy Information Agency reported 4,174 terawatt-hours of electricity use in 2018, giving an average hourly power of 476,600 megawatts.
788
Falko Ueckerdt, Lion Hirth, Gunnar Luderer, and Ottmar Edenhofer, “System LCOE: What Are the Costs of Variable Renewables?” Energy 63 (2013): 61–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.10.072.
789
Matthew Shaner, “Geophysical Constraints on the Reliability of Solar and Wind Power in the United States,” Energy and Environmental Science 11, no. 4 (2018): 914–25, https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ee03029k.
790
“New Poll: Nearly Half of Americans Are More Convinced than They Were Five Years Ago That Climate Change Is Happening, with Extreme Weather Driving Their Views,” Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago, January 22, 2019, https://epic.uchicago.edu/news/new-poll-nearly-half-of-americans-are-more-convinced-than-they-were-five-years-ago-that-climate-change-is-happening-with-extreme-weather-driving-their-views.
791
Ivan Penn, “The $3 Billion Plan to Turn Hoover Dam into a Giant Battery,” New York Times, July 24, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com. It describes a specific pumped-hydroelectric proposal of the type that would be repeated on a massive scale in Jacobson’s plan.
792
In a Guardian column in 2017, Professor Mark Jacobson and U.S. senator Bernie Sanders announced new energy legislation based on Jacobson’s work. Bernie Sanders and Mark Jacobson, “The American People – Not Big Oil – Must Decide Our Climate Future,” The Guardian, April 29, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com.
793
Christopher T. M. Clack, Steffan A. Qvist, Jay Apt et al., “Evaluation of a Proposal for Reliable Low-Cost Grid Power with 100 % Wind, Water, and Solar,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, no. 26 (June 27, 2017): 6722–27, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610381114. Chris Mooney, “A Bitter Scientific Debate Just Erupted over the Future of America’s Power Grid,” «The Washington Post», June 19, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com.
794
Ivan Penn, “California Invested Heavily in Solar Power. Now There’s So Much That Other States Are Sometimes Paid to Take It,” Los Angeles Times, June 22, 2017, https://www.latimes.com.
795
Vanessa Dezem, “Germany Plans Incentives to Boost Hydrogen in Energy Mix,” Bloomberg, November 20, 2019, https://www.bloomberg.com.
796
Frank Dohmen, Alexander Jung, Stefan Schultz, and Gerald Traufetter, “German Failure on the Road to a Renewable Future,” Spiegel International, May 13, 2019, https://www.spiegel.de.
797
“Annexe 6: Historique des charges de service public de l’électricité et de la // contribution unitaire,” Commission de Régulation de l’Énergie, http://www.cre.fr/documents/deliberations/proposition/cspe-2014/consulter-l-annexe-6-historique-des-charges-de-service-public-de-l-electricite-et-de-la-contribution-unitaire.
798
The French grid operator RTE France publishes hourly historical data for electricity production from 2012 onward, including an hourly carbon intensity rate useful for calculating annual carbon intensity averages. Since carbon intensity hit a minimum of 41 grams of CO2 in 2014, much higher power production from natural gas, wind, and solar electricity has accompanied declining nuclear power production.
799
“Big Oil’s Real Agenda on Climate Change,” InfluenceMap, March 2019, https://influencemap.org/report/How-Big-Oil-Continues-to-Oppose-the-Paris-Agreement-38212275958aa21196dae3b76220bddc.
800
Image of gas company Statoil’s ad campaign at Brussels airport, Bellona, February 5, 2016, https://network.bellona.org/content/uploads/sites/3/2016/02/WP_20151022_008.jpg.
801
BP (@BP_plc), “Our natural gas is a smart partner to renewable energy: http://on.bp.com/possibilitieseverywhere… #PossibilitiesEverywhere #NatGas,” Twitter, January 27, 2019, 1:38 a.m., https://twitter.com/bp_plc/status/1089457584694685696.
802
Mike Shellenberger (@ ShellenbergerMD), “No sooner had I landed in Germany, for 2017 U.N. climate talks, when I was confronted by airport ads paid for by Total, the French oil and gas company reading, ‘Committed to Solar’ and ‘Committed to Natural Gas,’ ” Twitter (text/image), March 28, 2019, 8:22 a.m., https://twitter.com/ShellenbergerMD/status/1111287183497789440.
803
Lisa Linowes (executive director, Wind Action Group) in conversation with the author, November 1, 2019.
804
Lisa Linowes (executive director, Wind Action Group) in conversation with the author, November 1, 2019.
805
Lisa Linowes (executive director, Wind Action Group) in conversation with the author, November 1, 2019.
806
John van Zalk and Paul Behrens, “The Spatial Extent of Renewable and Non-renewable Power Generation: A Review and Meta-analysis of Power Densities and Their Application in the U.S.,” Energy Policy 123 (December 2018): 83–91, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.08.023.
807
Lisa Linowes (executive director, Wind Action Group) in conversation with the author, November 1, 2019.
808
Lisa Linowes (executive director, Wind Action Group) in conversation with the author, November 1, 2019.
809
Paul M. Cryan, “Wind Turbines as Landscape Impediments to the Migratory Connectivity of Bats,” Journal of Environmental Law 41 (May 2011): 355–70, https://www.lclark.edu/live/files/8520-412cryan.